The Layers of Earths Atmosphere

The envelope of gas surrounding our planet Earth, known as the atmosphere, is organized into five distinct layers. These layers start at ground level, measured at sea level, and rise into what we call outer space. From the ground up they are: the troposphere,the stratosphere,the mesosphere,the thermosphere, andthe exosphere. In-between each of these major five layers are transition zones called pauses where temperature changes, air composition, and air density occur. Pauses included, the atmosphere is a total of 9 layers thick! The Troposphere: Where Weather Happens Of all the atmospheres layers, the troposphere is the one were most familiar with (whether you realize it or not) since we live at its bottom -- the Earths surface. It hugs the Earths surface and extends upward to about high. Troposphere means, ‘where the air turns over’. A very appropriate name, since it is the layer where our day-to-day weather takes place. Starting at sea level, the troposphere goes up 4 to 12 miles (6 to 20 km) high. The bottom one third, that which is closest to us, contains 50% of all atmospheric gasses. This is the only part of the whole makeup of the atmosphere that is breathable. Thanks to its air being heated from below by the earths surface which absorbs the suns heat energy, tropospheric temperatures decrease as you travel up into the layer. At its top is a thin layer called the tropopause, which is just a buffer between the troposphere and the stratosphere. The Stratosphere: Ozones Home The stratosphere is the next layer of the atmosphere. It extends anywhere from 4 to 12 miles (6 to 20 km) above Earths surface up to 31 miles (50 km). This is the layer where most commercial airliners fly and weather balloons travel to. Here the air doesn’t flow up and down but flows parallel to the earth in very fast moving air streams. Its temperature also increases as you go up, thanks to the abundance of natural ozone (O3) -- the byproduct of solar radiation and oxygen which has a knack for absorbing the suns harmful UV rays. (Anytime temperatures increase with elevation in meteorology, its known as an inversion.) Since the stratosphere has warmer temperatures at its bottom and cooler air at its top, convection (thunderstorms) is rare in this part of the atmosphere. In fact, you can visibly spot its bottom layer in stormy weather by where the anvil-shaped tops of cumulonimbus clouds are. How so? Since the layer acts as a cap to convection, the tops of storm clouds have nowhere to go but spread outward. After the stratosphere, there is again a buffer layer, this time called the stratopause. The Mesosphere: The Middle Atmosphere Starting roughly 31 miles (50 km) above Earths surface and extending up to 53 miles (85 km) is the mesosphere. The mesospheres top region is the coldest naturally occurring place on Earth. Its temperatures can dip below -220  °F (-143  °C, -130 K)! The Thermosphere: The Upper Atmosphere After the mesosphere and mesopause come the thermosphere. Measured between 53 miles (85 km) and 375 miles (600 km) above the earth, it contains less than 0.01% of all air within the atmospheric envelope. Temperatures here reach upward to 3,600  Ã‚ °F (2,000  °C), but because the air is so thin and there are so few gas molecules to transfer the heat, these high temperatures would amazingly feel very cold to our skin. The Exosphere: Where Atmosphere and Outer Space Meet Some 6,200 miles (10,000 km) above the earth is the exosphere -- the atmospheres outer edge. It is where weather satellites orbit the earth. What About the Ionosphere? The ionosphere isnt its own separate layer but is actually the name given to the atmosphere from about 37 miles (60 km) to 620 miles (1,000 km) high. (It includes the top-most parts of the mesosphere and all of the thermosphere and exosphere.) Gas atoms drift into space from here. It is called ionosphere because in this part of the atmosphere the sun’s radiation is ionized, or pulled apart as it travels earth’s magnetic fields to the north and south poles. This pulling apart is seen from earth as auroras. Edited by Tiffany Means

Sustainable Agriculture Essay - 3323 Words

Sustainable Agriculture Agriculture has been a fundamental component of human societies for centuries. It is so fundamental in fact that it is often forgotten by those dependent on its products, but not directly involved in the production. As we enter the 21st century, agriculture is beginning to receive more attention from the general public as the implications of farming are realized and the problem of potential world wide food shortage is addressed. With the future in focus, much of agricultural establishment uses words like biotech, and high-tech to describe their goals for U.S. agriculture. With few exceptions, traditional agriculturalists see a continuing trend of industrial agricultural practices that continue to drive†¦show more content†¦Those that oppose the industrial model for the future of agriculture have adopted a different paradigm which falls under the concept of Sustainable Agriculture. Like industrial agriculture, sustainable agriculture has many different tools and applications, but is defined by its attempts to make agricultural decisions which are environmentally sound, economically viable, and socially just for all sectors of society (Hassanein 3). This concept of Sustainable agriculture, while differing in its application, represents a logical, realistic, and necessary alternative to industrial agriculture given the reality of limited resources and anticipated food shortages in the 21st century. Industrial Agriculture: Can the trend continue? Contributions in the Past At the start of the 20th century, the gains from industrializing agriculture were undeniable. As an agrarian society, much of the time, money, energy, and resources of farming went to support the farming community themselves. At the same time, the opportunities of the industrial revolution were becoming evident. 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On a larger scale, agriculture is an important industry all over the globe. And the effects it has on the environment and consumers are seen everywhere from inefficient water usage, harmful herbicides, soil nutrient depletion, to deforestation and harmful or unregulated produce, which is why sustainable agriculture is so important. It makes senses for us as customers to understand the effects our food industry has

Analyze The Factors Impacting The Superannuation Decisions in Corporat

Question: Discuss about the Corporate Financial Management Analyze The Factors Impacting The Superannuation Decisions. Answer: Introduction This report has been developed in order to analyze the factors impacting the superannuation decisions of tertiary sector employees. In this context, the important characteristics of defined benefit and investment choice plan are discussed in detail to support the decision-making process of employees relating to place their superannuation contributions. Also, the report at the end presents a critical evaluation of the statement If the efficient market hypothesis is true, the pension fund manager can select a portfolio with a pin. Factors Impacting the Selection of Superannuation Contributions in Defined Benefit or Investment Choice plan by Tertiary Sector Employees The term Superannuation refers to the retirement benefit offered to the employees under their contract if employment. The term is defined in the Occupational Superannuation Standards Act 1987 as funds that are entitled to be provided to the employees upon their retirements from employment. There are different types of superannuation funds plan offered to the employees for saving money to secure their future life. The major advantage of placing pension funds under the superannuation schemes is that the funds are likely to increase without any implications of tax. The tertiary sector employees are the service sector employees while the other two economic sectors being the agriculture and manufacturing sectors. The pension plans are extremely important for tertiary sector employees as they are bound to retire from their employment tenure at a certain age and this they need to save money for future in order to live an independent life after retirement (Dixon, 2012). The two major types of superannuation funds offered to the employees are defined benefit and investment choice plan for placing their superannuation contributions. The defined benefit plan is a retirement plan that is provided on the behalf of employer to employees and is calculated through the use of a fixed formula. The formula employed for the calculations of the retirement payout under this type of plan takes into account the factors such as age, term of employment and salary history. The responsibility of managing the portfolio and all type of investment risk is undertaken by the company. The performance of the portfolio does not impact the retirement payout of the employees under this type of plan. The employee takes all the investment decisions and thus assumes all type of risk relating to investment in defined benefit plan. This is known as defined benefit plan as the benefits offered to the employees under it is fixed and is known to them in advance (Henderson, 2012). The employees under this type of plan gains benefits such as they have to not spend time in managing their pension funds as all type of decisions are undertaken by the employer. Also, the employees receive the fixed income as their pension amount in this type of plan without any investment risk. Thus, it is the most secured type of superannuation plan provided to the employees by the employer.However, there also some limitation associated with this type of plan. The major limitation is that the employees are not likely to receive any extra benefit depending on the performance of their portfolio. Also, the retirement payout is impacted the age factors and salary history. Thus, the employees with older age and more salary will receive more benefits in this type of plan (Smith and Koken, 2011). Investment choice plan is contrary to the define benefit plan completely. The investment choice plan is completely controlled and managed by the employees with no role of the employer. The employees hold the possession of their superannuation contributions and as such they can select the type of assets in which they want to invest. The investment choice has different features as compared to defined benefit plan as the retirement income in this type of plan cannot be determined in advance. The employees take the assistance of professionals in selecting the different type of assets in which they want to place their superannuation contributions. There are different types of investment choice offered to the employees under this type of plan (McKeown, 2012). The employees can select the best plan for them based on the risk and return characteristics of each. The investment choices under this type of plan are as follows: Cash Option: This type of option is mainly for the risk-averse investors as it mainly involves investing the superannuation funds in fixed-interest investment such as bonds and bank deposits. The funds invested under it remain stable and are not subjected to any market fluctuations. Conservative Option: This type of options involves low to medium level of risk. The superannuation funds are mainly deposited in fixed-interest investment but some proportion is also invested in growth assets such as shares and property. Balanced Option: This type of option is for the employees who like to take some risk with their superannuation funds. The superannuation funds under this type of plan are invested mainly on high risk growth assets such as shares and property and remaining proportion is deposited in lower-risk securities such as cash, bonds etc. Growth Option: This option is mainly for the employees who are prepared to take high risk as it involves investing completely the superannuation funds in growth asset such as shares and property (Henderson, 2012). The main drawback of this type of plan is that income is not fixed and thus sometimes it can be more or less as compared to define benefit plan depending on returns generated. Also, the employees have to invest a significant proportion of their time for monitoring the investment of their superannuation funds. However, the employees can realize higher returns under this type of plan that it is not impacted by the factors such as age, tenure of employment and salary history. This proves to be major benefit of investment choice plan in comparison to defined benefit. Thus, tertiary sector employees have to analyze and examine the features of all type of superannuation plans before determining their retirement goals. The employees cab select one option or a combination of options to meet their long-term retirement goals (Iverson, 2013). Time Value of Money Relevance to Decision-Making Process of Placing Superannuation Contributions The time value of money principle can largely support the decision-making of employees in regard to invest their superannuation contributions. The concept states that money has the capacity to grow in value over a future period of time. Thus, as per the principle same amount of money has more worth today than in the future. The investors can gain significant benefit from implementing the principle of time value of money as the concept states that receiving cash today is more beneficial and valuable as compared to some future point of time. The money can be invested to earn interest over a period of time and this is the reason for its present worth more than the later worth (Smith and Koken, 2011). The investors can identify the timing of cash flows through the application of concept of time value of money. The time value of money principle found extensive application in determining the present and future value of cash flows. There are mainly two techniques used by the investors in de termining the present and future value of cash flows that are, discounting and compounding. Discounting involves determining the present value of money that is likely to be received in future period of time.It is calculated through the application of discount rate to the sum of money that is to be received in the future period of time. On the other hand, compounding involves determining the future value of an investment or series of periodic payments that is likely to be received in the future (Hirt, 2010). Thus, the concept of time value of money can prove to be of high significance for the employees at the time of deciding their superannuation contributions. The compounding technique can help in determining the future value of present day investment made by the employees under the superannuation contributions. They can easily determine the future amount that they will receive under defined benefit or investment choice plan through the application of compounding technique. The future value of investment under the investment choice plan can be accessed through the use of asset prices. The return on assets fluctuates rapidly and thus can de predicted through the use of continuous compounding technique (Gitman et al., 2015). The employees cans select their superannuation plan from defined benefit or investment choice on the basis of comparing the future amount that will receive under both the plans. Therefore, the principle of time value of money can prove to be the core of decision-makin g process in relation to the selection of superannuation plans. The planning of superannuation investment strategy by the employees can be supported by the time value of money principle that helps in analyzing the worth of investment in future by taking into the account the impact of compound interest. The future value is dependent mainly on the original amount invested, rate of interest and number of compounding periods (Dixon, 2012). If the Efficient-Market Hypothesis is true, the pension fund manager might as well select a portfolio with a pin The theory of efficient-market hypothesis states that current price of assets reflects all the relevant information to the investors about the value of a firm. The investors cannot realize higher profits by using this information as it is equally available to all the investors. The theory has argued that any change in the assets properties are rapidly absorbed by its current prices and therefore investors cannot earn profits from predicting price movements (Moles et al., 2011). However, this is not case as investors have outperforms the market by investing in undervalued and overvalued securities. The investors identifies undervalued securities whose prices to increase in value over future period of time and thus they can outperform the market. The employees investing their pension fund in different types of superannuation schemes aims to receive higher payout after their retirement. The role of pension fund manager in this case is to maximize returns for the employees by developing a portfolio that provides them higher returns and is associated with lesser risk (Maginn et al., 2007). However, if the findings of efficient-market hypothesis were true, the pension fund manager can easily construct a portfolio without analyzing the risk and return characteristics of assets as their prices reflect all available information about them. On the contrary, the pension fund manager cannot select a portfolio with a pin as they incorporates the use of variety of forecasting and valuation techniques for taking decisions relating to investment of pension funds of their clients. They have to select securities that will provide higher returns in future period of time so that employees realize higher income from their pension funds (Rattiner, 2010). As such, the pension fund manager has to diversify the market risk by investing the pension fund in different type of assets. The diversification reduces the market risk as there are different classes of assets so that returns generated by an asset are not impacted by other asset returns. Thus, pension fund manager can outperform the market through diversification of the assets. Also, the pension fund manager should select the assets that have negative or low coo-relation between them so that if one asset underperforms it does not impact the performance of other assets. The pension fund manager also conducts technical and fundamental analysis for analyzing the future performance of an asset before selecting it in the portfolio. Thus, it can be stated that pension fund manager have to carefully select the type of asset under a portfolio and there is no benefits realized through the development of efficient-market hypothesis (Power, 2012). Conclusion It is summarized from the overall discussion that tertiary sector employees should analyze and examine well the features of defined benefit and investment choice pan before placing their superannuation contributions. The concept of time value of money will prove to be highly beneficial for the employees in taking this decision. Also, the pension fund manager cannot select a portfolio with a pin as stated by the theory of efficient-market hypothesis. References Dixon, D. 2012. Securing Your Superannuation Future: How to Start and Run a Self Managed Super Fund. John Wiley Sons. Gitman, L. J. et al. 2015. Principles of Managerial Finance. Pearson Higher Education AU. Henderson, S. 2012. SMSF DIY Guide: Everything you need to successfully set up and run your own Self Managed Superannuation Fund. John Wiley Sons. Hirt, G. 2010. Investment Planning. McGraw Hill Professional. Iverson, D. 2013. Strategic Risk Management: A Practical Guide to Portfolio Risk Management. John Wiley Sons. Iverson, D. 2013. Strategic Risk Management: A Practical Guide to Portfolio Risk Management. John Wiley Sons. Maginn, J. L. et al. 2007. Managing Investment Portfolios: A Dynamic Process. John Wiley Sons. McKeown, W. 2012. Financial Planning. John Wiley Sons. Moles, P., et al. 2011. Corporate Finance. John Wiley Sons. Power, T. 2012. Superannuation for Dummies. 2nd ed. John Wiley Sons. Rattiner, J. H. 2010. Getting Started as a Financial Planner. 2nd ed. John Wiley and Sons. Smith, B., and Koken, Ed. 2011. The Superannuation Handbook 2008-09. John Wiley Sons.

The Effect of a Mathematics Methodology Classroom on Self

Several teacher education studies have focused on teaching efficacy beliefs (Albayrak, 2011), because teaching efficacy beliefs influence the teacher’s effectiveness, attitude and behavior. The concept of self-efficacy, for instance, has been described by Bandura. Self efficacy, according to Bandura (1997) is the process whereby people develop the ability to organize and accomplish important tasks first.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Effect of a Mathematics Methodology Classroom on Self-Efficacy of Pre-service Elementary Teachers specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Bandura (1997) posits that self efficacy influences the manner in which an individual approaches his goals, challenges and tasks. This concept lies at the heart of Bandura’s social cognitive theory. Most people would think of self efficacy as a belief that they can act in such a way that they will be successful in their endeavors. Orga nizing and doing important things first are certainly apart of that. On the broader side, social cognitive theory posits that what an individual observes in others plays a critical role in shaping his or her cognitive processes, as well as his or her social behaviors. According to the philosophy of self-efficacy, people should develop their own capacity to reach the essential degree of learning (Albayrak, 2011). The development of mathematics self-efficacy in pre-service elementary teachers who participate in mathematics education methods courses is the core subject of this paper. Self-efficacy beliefs usually â€Å"influence the manner in which people think, behave, and become motivated† (Albayrak, 2011, p.185). Efficacy beliefs also determine how much effort teachers will apply during the education process and how long their behavior will be sustained when they encounter obstacles while teaching (Albayrak, 2011). Kazempour (2008) makes it clear that the concept of self-effi cacy and the ideas of teacher-efficacy are related. He argues that teachers who are confident in their mathematical abilities are able to influence the mathematics learning methods of their students. Consequently, students’ belief levels will be enhanced affecting the success of particular students and of the learning environment. This has been seconded by findings from various studies. In one such study, the attitude of elementary primary teachers with respect to mathematics was found to be essential in shaping student’s current and future perceptions (Salzer, 2010).Advertising Looking for essay on education? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Students’ attitudes and success are partly dependent on the elementary teachers’ attitude with respect to mathematics. Moreover, teachers should provide different types of feedback to students and use the appropriate learning methods to help students achieve pos itive results in their learning. Thus, teachers should believe that they are capable of improving the learning methods of different students in a classroom. Kazempour (2008) found that students’ performance depends considerably on their teacher’s efficacy, as teachers’ self-efficacy influences students’ achievement and motivation. Teacher’s efficacy has two dimensions: â€Å"personal teaching efficacy and teaching outcome expectancy† (Kazempour, 2008, p.10). Personal teaching efficacy refers to a teacher’s belief in his or her own ability to teach mathematics in an efficient manner. This significantly depends on the teacher’s attitude towards mathematics. If the teacher has a positive attitude, he or she is likely to teach mathematics in an efficient manner and boost the morale of his or her students. Conversely, teachers who have negative attitude towards mathematics are unlikely to teach mathematics in an effective manner; th is negatively affects the students’ attitudes and ultimately success. On the other hand, teaching outcome expectancy refers to the belief that a teacher’s mode of teaching is capable of influencing a student’s mode of learning in a positive manner. Teachers who ascribe to this philosophy believe that external factors such as family background, parental influence, IQ, school conditions, and home environment do not influence a student’s performance in mathematics once the teacher uses the appropriate strategy to enhance the student’s ability to learn and digest new information. This strategy can be considered as an adequate use of the teacher’s self-efficacy (Cone, 2009). Research shows that teachers who have a high level of teaching efficacy create a learning environment that encourages students to think productively. As Kazempour (2008) explains, teachers with high self-efficacy use such strategies as â€Å"student questioning, brainstormin g, and class discussions† (p.401).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Effect of a Mathematics Methodology Classroom on Self-Efficacy of Pre-service Elementary Teachers specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Brusal (2007) found that using self-efficacy in instilling mathematics literacy allows teachers to improve the performance of their students regardless of whether their students come from challenging home backgrounds. Self-efficacious teachers use student-centered approaches that stress the role of students in the learning process and make them feel that they contribute to the learning process as well. In the course of a discussion, according to Bursal (2007), this will make students feel that their opinions matter and they will become more interested in the subject. This study will use mixed methods. The data will be collected through questionnaires and interviews to gain a deeper understanding of how self- efficacy influences the mathematics teaching of pre-service teachers. The study will gather data from future mathematics teachers both male and female in the field of early childhood education to analyze and assess how the self-efficacy of teachers influences their students. An electronic survey will be carried out using Quartic software. Quatic software is a tool based on android platform and is used in scientific calculations. Five randomly selected teachers will be interviewed to judge how the progress of future teachers with and without self-efficacy (their perception towards mathematics) is affected by the methodology course. References Albayrak, M. (2011). The effect of methods of teaching mathematics course on mathematics teaching efficacy beliefs of elementary pre-service mathematics teachers. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 16(1), 183-190. Bandura, L. (1997). Self Efficay: The Exercise of Control. New York, N.Y: W.H. Freeman and Company. Bursal, M. ( 2007). Turkish preservice elementary teachers’ self- efficacy beliefs regarding mathematics and science teachng. International Journal of science and Mathematics Education, 8(4), 649-666.Advertising Looking for essay on education? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Cone, N. (2009). Pre-service elementary teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs about equitable science teaching: Does service learning make a difference? Journal of Elementary Science Education, 21(2), 25-34. Kazempour, M. (2008). Exploring attitudes, beliefs, and self efficacy of pre-service elementary teachers enrolled in a science methods course and factors responsible for possible changes. Retrieved from ProQuestDigital Dissertations. (AAT 3324538). Salzer, (2010). The Impact of Exerience on Elematry School Teacher Efffcetive Realtionship with Mathematics. Illinois: Olivet Nazarene University. This essay on The Effect of a Mathematics Methodology Classroom on Self-Efficacy of Pre-service Elementary Teachers was written and submitted by user Jaycob H. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.